DTIC ADA009513: Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

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PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

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Robert J. House and
Terence R. Mitchell

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Path-Goal Theory -Contingency Factors - Leadership Style

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The paper reviews the path-goal theory of leadership. This theory states
that a leader's behavior Is important for good performance as a function of
Its Impact on subordinates' perceptions of paths to goals and the attractive-
ness of the goals. When leader behavior clarifies these goals or makes them
more attractive we would expect the satisfaction, performance and leader
acceptance to Increase. The specific relationship between leader behavior

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and these criteria (satisfaction, performance and acceptance) will depend upon
the personality of the subordinate and the existing task environment.

The paper discusses these complex relationships in some detail, v A theor-
etical framework encompassing four types of leader behavior, the personality
and environmental moderators and the three criteria Is presented. The em-
pirical support for the propositions Is also reviewed. In general It appears
as If the path-goal approach will be useful for both our understanding and
prediction of effective leader behavior.

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ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON

PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERHSIP
Robert J. House and Terence R. Mitchell

University of Washington
Seattle, Washington

Technical Report 75-67

April 1975

Contract NR 170-761, N00014-67-A-01 03-0032

Organizational Effectiveness Research Programs
Office of Naval Research

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DiaUibulion Ur'ir.titad

PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

Robert J. House
University of Toronto

Terence R. Mitchell
University of Washington

An Integrated body of conjecture by students of leadership, referred to as
the "Path-Goal Theory of Leadership," Is currently emerging. According to this
theory, leaders are effective because of thler Impact on subordinates' motivation,
ability to perform effectively and satisfactions. The theory Is called Path-Goal
because Its major concern Is how the leader Influences the subordinates' percep-
tions of their work goals, personal goals and paths to goal attainment. The the-
ory suggests that a leader's behavior Is motivating or satisfying to the degree
that the behavior Increases subordinate goal attainment and clarifies the paths to
these goals.

Historical Foundations

The path-goal approach has its roots In a more general motivational theory

called expectancy theory.1 Briefly., expectancy theory states that an Individual's

attitudes (e.g., satisfaction with supervision or job satisfaction) or behavior

(e.g., leader behavior or job effort) can be predicted from: (1) the degree to

which the job, or behavior, is seen as leading to various outcomes (expectancy)

and (2) the evaluation of these outcomes (valences). Thus, people are satisfied

with their job If they think It leads to things that are highly valued, and they

work hard if they believe that effort leads to things that are highly valued.

This type of theoretical rationale can be used to predict a variety of phenomena

related to leadership, such as why leaders behave the way they do, or how leader

2

behavior influences subordinate motivation.

This latter approach is the primary concern of this article. The implication
for leadership Is that subordinates are motivated by leader behavior to the extent

2 House

that this behavior Influences expectancies, e.g., goal paths and valences, e.g

goal attractiveness.

Several writers have advanced specific hypotheses concerning how the leader
affects the paths and the goals of subordinates. These writers focused on two
Issues: (1) how the leader affects subordinates' expectations that effort will

lead to effective performance and valued rewards, and (2) how this expectation
affects motivation to work hard and perform well.

While the state of theorizing about leadership In terms of subordinates'
paths and goals Is In Its Infancy, we believe It Is promising for two reasons.
First, It suggests effects of leader behavior that have not yet been investigated
but which appear to be fruitful areas of Inquiry. And, second. It suggests with
some precision the situational factors on which the effects of leader behavior
are contingent.

The Initial theoretical work by Evans asserts that leaders will be effective
by making rewards available to subordinates and by making these rewards contingent

4

on the subordinate's accomplishment of specific goals. Evans argued that one of
the strategic functions of the leader Is to clarify for subordinates the kind of
behavior that leads to goal accomplishment and valued rewards. This function
might be referred to as path clarification. Evans also argued that the leader
Increases the rewards by being concerned about their status, welfare and comfort.
Leader supportiveness Is In itself a reward that the leader has at his or her dis-
posal, and the judicious use of this reward increases the motivation of subor-
dinates.

Evans also studied the relationship between the behavior of leaders and the
subordinates' expectations that effort leads to rewards and also studied the re-
sulting Impact on ratings of the subordinates' performance. He found that when
subordinates viewed leaders as being supportive (considerate of their needs) and
when these superiors provided directions and guidance to the subordinates, there

House

3

was a positive relationship between leader behavior and subordinates' performance
ratings.

However, leader behavior was only related to subordinates' performance wh*r.
the leader's behavior also was related to the subordinates' expectations that their
effort would result In desired rewards. Thus, Evans' findings suggest that the
major Impact of a leader on the performance of subordinates Is clarifying the path
to desired rewards and making such rewards contingent on effective performance.

Stimulated by this line of reasoning. House, and House and Dessler advanced
a more complex theory of the effects of leader behavior on the motivation of sub-
ordinates. The theory Intends to explain the effects of four specific kinds of
leader behavior on the following three subordinate attitudes or expectations: (1)
the satisfaction of subordinates, (2) the subordinates' acceptance of the leader
and (3) the expectations of subordinates that effort will result In effective per-
formance and that effective performance Is the path to rewards. The four kinds
of leader behavior Included In the theory are: (1) directive leadership, (2) sup-

portive leadership, (3) participative leadership and (4) achievement-oriented
leadership. Directive leadership Is characterized by a leader who lets subordin-
ates know what is expected of them, gives specific guidance as to what should be
done and how It should be done, makes his or her part In the group understood,
schedules work to be done, maintains definite standards of performance and asks
that group members follow standard rules and regulations. Supportive leadership
is characterized by a friendly and approachable leader who shows concern for the
status, well-being and needs of subordinates. Sush a leader does little things
to make the work more pleasant, treats members as equals and Is friendly and
approachable. Participative leadership Is characterized by a leader who consults
with subordinates, solicits their suggestions and takes these suggestions serious-
ly Into consideration before making a decision. An achievement -oriented leader
sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to perform at their highest level,

4

House

continuously seeks Improvement In performance and shows a high degree of confidence
that the subordinates will assume responsibility, put forth effort and accomplish
challenging goals. This kind of leader constantly emphasizes excellence In per-
formance and simultaneously displays confidence that subordinates will meet high
standards of excellence.

A number of studies suggest that these different leadership styles can be
shown by the same leader In various situations.® For example, a leader may show
directiveness toward subordinates In some Instances and be participative or sup-
portive In other Instances. ^ Thus, the traditional method of characterizing a
leader as either highly participative and supportive or highly directive Is In-
valid; rather. It can be concluded that leaders vary In the particular fashion
employed for supervising their subordinates. Also, the theory. In Its present
stage. Is a tentative explanation of the effects of leader behavior— It is in-
complete because It does not explain other kinds of leader behavior and does not
explain the effects of the leader on. factors other than subordinate acceptance,
satisfaction and expectations. However, the theory Is stated so that additional
variables may be Included In It as new knowledge Is made available.

PATH-GOAL THEORY
General Propositions

The first proposition of path-goal theory Is that leader behavior is accep-
table and satisfying to subordinates to the extent that the subordinates see such
behavior as either an Immediate source of satisfaction or as Instrumental to
future satisfaction.

The second proposition of this theory Is that the leader's behavior will be
motivational, l.e., Increase effort, to the extent that (1) such behavior makes
satisfaction of subordinate's needs contingent on effective performance and (2)
such behavior complements the environment of subordinates by providing the coach-
ing, guidance, support and rewards necessary for effective performance.

House 5

These two propositions suggest that the leader's strategic functions are to
enhance subordinates' motivation to perform, satisfaction with the job and acrep-
tance of the leader. From previous research on expectancy theory of motivation,

It can be Inferred that the strategic functions of the leader consist of: (1)

recognizing and/or arousing subordinates' needs for outcomes over which the leader
has some control, (2) Increasing personal pay-offs to subordinates for work-goal
attainment, (3) making the path to those payoffs easier to travel by coaching and
direction, (4) helping subordinates clarify expectancies, (5) reducing frustrating
barriers and (6) Increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent
on effective performance.

Stated less formally, the motivational functions of the leader consist of
Increasing the nurber and kinds of personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal
attainment and making paths to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying the
paths, reducing road blocks and pitfalls and Increasing the opportunities for
personal satisfaction en route.

Contingency Factors

Two classes of situational variables are asserted to be contingency factors.

A contingency factor is a variable which moderates the relationship between two
other variables such as leader behavior and subordinate satisfaction. For example,
we might suggest that the degree of structure In the task moderates the relation-
ship between leaders' directive behavior and subordinates' job satisfaction.

Figure l shows how such a relationship might look. Thus, subordinates are satis-
fied with directive behavior In an unstructured task and are satisfied with non-
directive behavior In a structured task. Therefore, we say that the relationship
between leader directiveness and subordinate satisfaction Is contingent upon the
structure of the task.

Figure 1

Hypothetical relationship between directive leadership
and subordinate satisfaction with task
structure as a contingency factor.

Leader Directiveness

Mouse

6

The two contingency variables are (a) personal characteristics of the sub~
ordinates and (b) the environmental pressures and demands with which subordinates
must cope In order to accomplish the work goals and to satisfy their needs.

While other situational factors also may operate to determine the effects of
leader behavior, they are not presently known.

With respect to the first class cf contingency factors, the characteristics
of subordinates, oath-goal tteory asserts that leader behavior will be acceptable
to subordinates to the extent that the subordinates see such behavior as either
an immediate source of satisfaction or as Instrumental to future satisfaction.
Subordinates' characteristics are hypothesized to partially determine this per-

o g

ceptlon. For example, Runyon and Mitchell show that the subordinate's score
on a measure called Locus of Control moderates the relationship between partici-
pative leadership style and subordinate satisfaction. The Locus -of -Control mea-
sure reflects the degree to which an Individual sees the environment as systema-
tically responding to his or her behavior. People who believe that what happens
to them occurs because of their behavior are called internals; people who believe
that what happens to them occurs because of luck or chance are called externals.
Mitchell's findings suggest that Internals are more satisfied with a participa-
tive leadership style and extends are more satisfied with a directive style.

A second characteristic of subordinates on which the effects of leader be-
havior are contingent is subordinates' perception of their own ability with res-
pect to their assigned tasks. The higher the degree of perceived ability rela-
tive to task demands, the less the subordinate will view leader directiveness
and coaching behavior as acceptable. Where the subordinate's perceived ability
Is high, such behavior Is likely to have little positive effect on the motivation
of the subordinate and to be perceived as excessively close control. Thus, the
acceptability of the leader's behavior Is determined In part by the characteris-
tics of the subordinates.

7

House

The second aspect of the situation, the environment of the subordinate,
consists of those factors that are not within the control of the subordinate but
which are Important to need satisfaction or to ability to perform effectively.

The theory asserts that effects of the leader's behavior on the psychological
states of subordinates are contingent on other parts of the subordinates' en-
vironment that are relevant to subordinate motivation. Three broad classifica-
tions of contingency factors In the environment are:

* The subordinates' tasks

* The formal authority system of the organization

* The primary work group.

Assessment of the environmental conditions makes It possible to predict the kind
and amount of Influence that specific leader behaviors will have on the motiva-
tion of subordinates. Any of the three environmental factors could act upon the
subordinate In any of three ways: first, to serve as stimuli that motivate and
direct the subordinate to perform necessary task operations; second, to constrain
variability in behavior. Constraints may help the subordinate by clarifying ex-
pectancies that effort leads to rewards or by preventing the subordinate from
experiencing conflict and confusion. Constraints also may be counterproductive to
the extent that they restrict initiative or prevent increases in effort from be-
ing associated positively with rewards. Third, environmental factors may serve
as rewards for achieving desired performance, e.g., It Is possible for the sub-
ordinate to receive the necessary cues to do the job and the needed rewards for
satisfaction from sources other than the leader, e.g., coworkers in the primary
work group. Thus, the effect of the leader on subordinates' motivation will be
a function of how deficient the environment Is with respect to motivational stim-
uli, constraints or rewards.

With respect to the environment, path-goal theory asserts that when goals
and paths to desired goals are apparent because of the routine nature of the

House

8

task, clear group norms or objective controls of the formal authority systems,
attempts by the leader to clarify paths and goals will be both redundant and seen
by subordinates as Imposing unnecessary, close control, Although such control
may Increase performance by preventing soldiering or malingering, it also will
result In decreased satisfaction (see Figure I). Also with respect to the work
environment, the theory asserts that the more dissatisfying the task, the nore
the subordinates will resent leader behavior directed at increasing productivity
or enforcing compliance to organizational rules and procedures.

Finally, with respect to environmental variables the theory states that lea-
der behavior will be motivational to the extent that it helps subordinates cope
with environmental uncertainties, threats from others or sources of frustration,
Such leader behavior Is predicted to increase subordinates' satisfaction with
the job context and to be motivational to the extent that it increases the suo-
ordinates' expectations that their effort will lead to valued rewards.

These propositions and specification of situational contingencies provide a
heuristic framework on which to base future research. Hopefully, this will lead
to a more fully developed, explicitly formal theory of leadership.

Figure 2 presents a summary of the theory. It is hoped that these propo-
sitions, while admittedly tentative, will provide managers with some insights
concerning the effects of their own leader behavior and that of others.

EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

The theory has been tested in a limited number of studies which have gener-
ated considerable empirical support for our Ideas and also suggest areas in
which the theroy requires revision. A brief review of these studies follows.

Leader Directiveness

Leader directiveness has a positive correlation with satisfaction and expec-
tancies of subordinates who are engaged in ambiguous tasks and has a negative

Summary of Path-Goal Relationships

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House 9

correlation with satisfaction and expectancies of subordinates engaged in clear
tasks. These findings were predicted by the theory and have been replicate”* in
seven organizations. They suggest that when task demands are ambiguous or when
the organization procedures, rules and policies are not clear, a leader behaving
in a directive manner complements the tasks and the organization by providing
the necessary guidance and psychological structure for subordinates.^ However,
when task demands are clear to subordinates, leader directiveness Is seen more
as a hindrance.

However, other studies have failed to confirm these findings.^ A study
12

by Dessler suggests a resolution to these conflicting findings— he found that
for subordinates at the lower organizational levels of a manufacturing firm who
were doing routine, repetitive, unambiguous tasks, directive leadership was pre-
ferred by closed-minded, dogmatic, authoritarian subordinates and nondirective
leadership was preferred by non-authoritarian, open-minded subordinates. How-
ever, for subordinates at higher organizational levels doing nonroutine, ambigu-
ous tasks, directive leadership was preferred for both authoritarian and nonau-
thoritarian subordinates. Thus, Dessler found that two contingency factors ap-
pear to operate simultaneously: subordinate task ambiguity and degree of subor-

dinate authoritarianism. When measured in combination, the findings are as pre-
dicted by the theory; however, when the subordinate's personality is not taken
into account, task ambiguity does not always operate as a contingency variable
as predicted by the theroy. House, Burill and Dessler recently found a similar

interaction berween subordinate authoritarianism and task ambiguity in a second

1 3

manufacturing firm, thus adding confidence in Dessler's original findings.

Supportive Leadership

The theory hypothesizes that supportive leadership will have its most posi-
tive effect on subordinate satisfaction for subordinates who work on stressful,
frustrating or dissatisfying tasks. This hypothesis has been tested in ten

10 House

14

samples of employees, and In only one of these studies was the hypothesis dls-

15

confirmed. Despite some Inconsistency In research on supportive leadership,
the evidence Is sufficiently positive to suggest that managers should be alert
to the critical need for supportive leadership under conditions where tasks are
dissatisfying, frustrating or stressful to subordinates.

Achievement-Oriented Leadership

The theory hypothesizes that achievement-oriented leadership will cause sub-
ordinates to strive for higher standards of performance and to have more confi-
dence In the ability to meet challenging goals. A recent study by House, Valency
and Van der Krabben provides a partial test of this hypothesis among white collar
employees In service organizations.^ For subordinates performing ambiguous,
nonrepetltlve tasks, they found a positive relationship between the amount of
achievement orientation of the leader and subordinates' expectancy that their
effort would result In effective performance. Stated less technically, for sub-
ordinates performing ambiguous, nonrepetltlve tasks, the higher the achievement
orientation of the leader, the more the subordinates were confident that their
efforts would pay off In effective performance. For subordinates performing mod-
erately unambiguous, repetitive tasks, there was no significant relationship
between achievement-oriented leadership and subordinate expectancies that their
effort would lead to effective performance. This finding held in four separate
organizations.

Two paluslble Interpretations may be used to explain these data. First,
people who select ambiguous, nonrepetltlve tasks may be different In personality
from those who select a repetitive job and may, therefore, be more responsive to
an achievement-oriented leader. A second explanation Is that achievement orien-
tation only affects expectancies In ambiguous situations because there Is more
flexibility and autonomy In such tasks. Therefore, subordinates In such tasks

House

11

are more likely to be able to change In response to such leadership style.

Neither of the above Interpretations have been tested to date; however, ad-
ditional research Is currently under way to Investigate these relationships.

Participative Leadership

In theorizing about the effects of participative leadership It Is necessary
to ask about the specific characteristics of both the subordinates and their sit-
uation that would cause participative leadership to be viewed as satisfying and
Instrumental to effective performance.

Mitchell recently described at least four ways in which a participative
leadership style would Impact on subordinate attitudes and behavior as predicted
by expectancy theory.^7 First, a participative climate should increase the clar-
ity of organizational contingencies. Through participation In decision making,
subordinates should learn what leads to what. From a path-goal viewpoint par-
ticipation would lead to greater clarity of the paths to various goals. A second
impact of participation would be that subordinates, hopefully, should select
goals they highly value. If one participates In decisions about various goals,
it makes sense that this Individual would select goals he or she wants. Thus,
participation would Increase the correspondence between organization and subor-
dinate goals. Third, we can see how participation would increase the control
the individual has over what happens on the job. If our motivation Is higher
(based on the preceding two points), then having greater autonomy and ability
to carry out our intentions should lead to increarad effort and performance.
Finally, under a participative system, pressure towards high performance should
come from sources other than the leader or the organization. More specifically,
when people participate in the decision process they become more ego-involved;
the decisions made are In some part their own. Also, their peers know what Is
expected and the social pressure has a greater impact. This, motivation to per-
form will stem from Internal and social factors as well as formal external ones.

12

House

A number of Investigations prior to the above formulation supported the

18

Idea that participation appears to be helpful, and Mitchell presents a number

19

of recent studies that support the above four points, However, It Is also
true that we would expect the relationship between a participative style and sub-
ordinate behavior to be moderated by both the personality characteristic:, of the
subordinate and the situational demands. Studies by Tanne^baum and Alport and
Vroom have shown that subordinates who prefer autonomy and self-control respond

more positively to participative leadership In terms of both satisfaction and

20

performance than subordinates who do not have such preferences. Also, the

21 22

studies mentioned by Runyon and Mitchell shewed that subordinates who were
external In orientation were less satisfied with a participative style of lead-
ership than were Internal subordinates.

House also has reviewed these studies In an attempt to explain the ways in

which the situation or environment moderates the relationship between partlcipa-

23

tlon and subordinate attitudes and behavior. His analysis suggests that where
participative leadership Is positively related to satisfaction, regardless of
the predispositions of subordinates, the tasks of the subjects appear to be am-
biguous and ego-involving. In the studies in which the subjects' personalities
cr predispositions moderate the effect of participative leadership, the tasks
of the subjects are Inferred to be highly routine and/or nonego-lnvolvlng.

House reasoned from this analysis that the task may have an overriding ef-
fect on the relationship between leader participation and subordinate responses,
and that Individual predispositions or personality characteristics of subordin-
ates will have a need to reduce tht ambiguity. Further, It was assumed that
when task demands are ambiguous, participative problem solving between the leader
and the subordinate will result In more effective decisions than when the task
demands are unambiguous. Finally, It was assumed that when the subordinates are
ego-involved In their tasks they are more likely to want to have a say In the

House 13

decisions that affect them, Given these assumptions, the following hypotheses
were formulated to account for the conflicting findings reviewed above:

* When subjects are highly ego-involved In a decision or a task and the de-
cision or task demands are ambiguous, participative leadership will have a pos-
itive effect of the satisfaction and motivation of the subordinate, regardless

of the subordinate's predisposition toward self-control, authoritarianism or need
for Independence.

* When subordinates are not ego-involved In their tasks and when task de-
mands are clear, subordinates who are not authoritarian and who have high needs
for Independence and self-control will respond favorably to leader participation
and their opposite personality types will respond less favorably.

These hypotheses were derived on the basis of path-goal theorizing; i.e,,
the rationale guiding the analysis of prior studies was that both task character-
istics and characteristics of subordinates Interact to determine the effect of
a specific kind of leader behavior on the satisfaction, expectancies and per-
formance of subordinates. To date, one major investigation has supported some

24

of these predictions in which personality variables, amount of participative
leadership, task ambiguity and job satisfaction were assessed for 324 employees
of an industrial manufacturing organization. As expected, in nonrepetltlve, ego-
involving tasks, employees (regardless of their personality) were more satisfied
under a participative style than a nonparticipative style. However, In repet**
etive tasks which were less ego-involving the amount of authoritarianism of sub-
ordinates moderated the relationship between leadership style and satisfaction.
Specifically, low authoritarian subordinates were more satisfied under a parti-
cipative style. These findings are exactly as the theory would predict, thus.

It has promise in reconciling a set of confusing and contradictory findings with
respect to participative leadership.

14

House

Suninary and Conclusions

We have attempted to describe what we believe Is a useful theoretical
framework for understanding the effect of leadership behavior on subordinate
satisfaction and motivation. Most theorists today have moved away from the
simplistic notions that all effective leaders have a certain set of personality
traits or that the situation completely determines performance. Some research-
ers have presented rather complex attempts at matching certain types of leaders

25

with certain types of situations . But we believe that a path’-goal approach
goes one step further. It not only suggests what type of style may be most
effective In a given situation— It also attempts to explain wh£ it Is most
effective.

We are optimistic about the future outlook of leadership research. With
the guidance of path-goal theorizing, future research Is expected to unravel
many confusing puzzles about the reasons for and effects of leader behavior that
have, heretofore, not been solved. However, we add a word of caution: the

theory, and the research on It, are relatively new to the literature of organ-
izational behavior. Consequently, path-goal theory is offered more as a tool
for directing research and stimulating Insight than as a proven guide for man-
agerial action.

FOOTNOTES

* This article Is also to be reprinted In Readings In Organizational and
Industrial Psychology by G. A. Yukl and K. N. Wexley, 2nd edition (1975), The
research by House and his associates was partially supported by a grant from the
Shell Oil Company of Canada. The research by Mitchell and his associates was
partially supported by the Office of Naval Research Contract NR 170-761, N00014-
67-A-01 03-0032 (Terence R. Mitchell, Principal Investigator)

^T. R. Mitchell, "Expectancy Model of Job Satisfaction, Occupational Pref-
erence and Effort: A Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Appraisal,"

Psychological Bulletin (1974, in press).

2

D. M. Nebeker and T. R. Mitchell, "Leader Behavior: An Expectancy Theory

Approach," Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 11(1974), pp. 355-367.

3

M. G. Evans, "The Effects of Supervisory Behavior on the Path-Goal Rela-
tionship," Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 55(1970), pp. 277-298;

T. H. Hammer and H. T. Dachler, "The Process of Supervision in the Context of
Motivation Theory," Research Report No. 3 (University of Maryland, 1973); F. Dan
sereau, Jr., J. Cashman and G. Graen, "Instrumentality Theory and Equity Theory
As Complementary Approaches in Predicting the Relationship of Leadership and
Turnover Among Managers," Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 10(1973),
pp. 184-200; R. J. House, "A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness,11 Admin-
istrative Science Quarterly, 16, 3(September 1971), pp. 321-338; T. R. Mitchell,
"Motivation and Participation: An Integration," Academy of Management Journal ,

16, 4(1973), pp. 160-179; G. Graen, F. Dansereau, Jr. and T. Minami, "Dysfunc-
tional Leadership Styles," Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 7(1972),
pp. 216-236; , "An Empirical Test of the Man-in-the-MIddle Hypo-

thesis Among Executives in a Hierarchical Organization Employing a Unit Analysis
Organization Behavior and Human Performance, 8(1972), pp. 262-285; R. J. House

16

House

and G, Dessler, "The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership; Some Post Hoc and A Priori
Tests," to appear In J, G, Hunt, ed,. Contingency Approaches to Leadership
(Carbondale, HI.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1974),

*M. G. Evans, "Effects of Supervisory Behavior"; , "Extensions

of a Path-Goal Theory of Motivation," Journal of Applied Psychology, 59(1974),

pp. 172-178.

c

R. J. House, "A Path-Goal Theory"; R. J. House and G. Dessler, "Path-Goal
Theory of Leadership."

®R. J. House and G. Dessler, "Path-Goal Theory of Leadership"; R. M. Stqg-
dlll. Managers, Employees, Organization (Ohio State University, Bureau of Business
Research, 1965); R. J. HOuse, A. Valency and R. Van der Krabben, "Some Tests and
Extensions of the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership" (In preparation).

7W. A. Hill and D. Hughes, "Variations in Leader Gehavlor As a Function of
Task Type," Organization Behavior and Human Performance (1974, in press).

O

K. E. Runyon, "Some Interactions Between Personality Variables and Manage-
ment Styles," Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 3(1973), pp. 288-294; T. R.
Mitchell, C. R. Swyser and S. E. Weed, "Locus of Control: Supervision and Work

Satisfaction," Academy of Management Journal (In press).

9T. R. Mitchell, "Locus of Control,"

^R. J. House, "A Path-Goal Theory"; and G. Dessler, "Path-

Goal Theory of Leadership"; A. D. Szalagyi and H. P. Sims, "An Exploration of
the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership in a Health Care Environment," Academy of
Management Journal (in press); J. D. Dermer, "Supervisory Behavior and Budget
Motivation" (Cambridge, Mass.: unpublished, MIT, Sloan School of Management,
1974); R. W. Smetana, "The Relationship Between Managerial Behavior and Subor-
dinate Attitudes and Motivation: A Contribution to a Behavioral Theory of Lea-

dership" (Ph.D. dlss, Wayne State University, 1974).

House

17

"S. E, Weed, T, R, Mitchell and C, R, Smyser, "A Test of Housed Path-Goal
Theory of Leadership In an Organizational Setting" (paper presented at Western
Psychological Assoc., 1974); J. D. Dermer and J. P. Siegel, "A Test of Path-Goal
Theory: Dlsconflrmlng Evidence and a Critique"; R. S. Schuler, "A Path-Goal
Theory of Leadership: An Empirical Investigation" (Ph.D, dlss, Michigan State
University, 1973); H. K. Downey, J. E. Sheridan and J. W. Slocum, Jr., "Analysis
of Relationships Among Leader Behavior, Subordinate Job Performance and Satis-
faction: A Path-Goal Approach" (unpublished mimeograph, 1974); J. E. Stinson
and T. W. Johnson, "The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership: A Partial Test and Sug-
gested Refinement," Proceedings (Kent, Ohio: 7th Annual Conference of the Mid-

west Academy of Management, April 1974), pp. 18-36.

1 2

G. Dessler, "An Investigation of the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership" (Ph.D.
dlss. City University of New York, Bernard M. Baruch College, 1973).

13

R. J. House, D. Burrill and G. Dessler, "Tests and Extensions of Path-
Goal Theroy of Leadership, I" (unpublished, in process).

14R. J. House, "A Path-Goal Theory"; and G. Dessler, "Path-

Goal Theory of Leadership"; A. D. Szalagyi and H. P. Sims, "Exploration of Path-
Goal"; J. E. Stinson and T. W. Johnson, Proceedings; R. S. Schuler, "Path-Goal:
Investigation"; H. K. Downey, J. E. Sheridan and J. W. Slocum, Jr., "Analysis
of Relationships"; S. E. Weed, T. R. Mitchell and C. R. Smyser, "Test of Hcse's

Path-Goal . "

1 5

A. D. Szalagyi and H. P. Sims, "Exploration of Path-Goal."

^6R. J. House, A. Valency and R. Van der Krabben, "Tests and Extensions of
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, II" (unpublished, in process).

^T. R. Mitchell, "Motivation and Participation."

,8h. Tosl, "A Reexamination of Personality As a Determinant of the Effects
of Participation," Personnel Psychology, 23(1970), pp. 91-99; J, Sadler, "Leader-

House

18

ship Style, Confidence In Management and Job Satlsf action, H Journal of Applied
Behavioral Sciences, 6(1970), pp, 3-19; K, N. Wexley, J. P. Singh and J. A. Yukl,
•Subordinate Personality As a Moderator of the Effects of Participation In Three
Types of Appraisal Interviews," Journal of Appltdd- Psychology, 83 1(1973), pp.
54-59.

19T. R. Mitchell, "Motivation and Participation."

20

A. S. Tannenbaum and F. H. Allport, "Personality Structure and Group
Structure: An Interpretive Study of Their Relationship Through an Event-Struc-
ture Hypothesis," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53(1956), pp. 272-280;
V. H. Vroom, "Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation,"

Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(1959), pp. 322-327.

21

K. E. Runyon, "Some Interactions Between Personality Variables and Manage-
ment Styles," Journal of Applied Psychology, 57 3(1973), pp. 288-294.

^T. R. Mitchell, C. R. Smyser and S. E. Weed, "Locus of Control."

23

R. J. House, "Notes on the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership" (University

of Toronto, Faculty of Management Studies, May 1974).

24

R. S. Schuler, "Leader Participation, Task Structure and Subordinate Auth-
or1tar1an1sm"(unpubl1shed mimeograph, Cleveland State University, 1974).

^F. E. Fiedler, "Thte Contingency Model--New Directions for Leadership Utili-
zation," Journal of Contemporary Business, 3,4(Autumn 1974), pp. 65-79; V. H.
Vroom, "Decision Making and the Leadership Process," Journal of Contemporary
Business, 3,4(Autumn 1974), pp. 47-64.